Here we investigate potential seasonality in the diet, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. Tsavo. During the study period, adult male and female lions were sighted together in only 7% of the sightings (n=1710). In the north, the Bnou River flows north and west into the Niger. This study revealed seasonal patterns in secondary prey consumption by female lions partly based on prey ecology with browsers, such as giraffe and kudu, mainly consumed in the early dry season, and grazers, such as zebra and suids, contributing more to female diet in the late dry season. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). Accessed [date you accessed the information]. The access rate to fresh water is still low and far from the millennium's goal target (43,9%); the rate of water sanitation and hygiene is worse (36%). 2009). The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Performed the experiments: ZD JEH FVK. These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. The Lake Chad basin aquifer contains three main aquifer units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). Understanding how predators make use of their environment and how actions such as augmenting water supply can alter their behavioural ecology, has implications for the long term sustainability of predator-prey systems. April 20, 2022 For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon. 2). Sahara Desert Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). Timber logging provides significant government income, but is relatively poorly regulated. Cameroon: Sahara Desert A Threat to Livelihood and Bio-Diversity. In total, agriculture contributes around 40% of GDP. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Given the propensity of kill investigations to be biased towards large prey, this is likely an underestimation and it should be considered that juvenile zebra are highly selected for by lions. Mafany GT and Fantong WY. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. Mambele, situated some 800 km from the nations capital Yaounde, is one of 21 communities around Lobeke with over 23000 inhabitants. With the help of hydrology experts and in support of the kenya wildlife service, we have drilled 32 boreholes, including 29 boreholes in the tsavo conservation area. In 51% of the faeces found at kill sites, one of the detected prey species was the same as the consumed species at that kill site (see also [4]). The combined thickness of laterite and weathered basement is usually between 8 and 20 m (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. Samples were washed, sieved and sun dried to remove organic matter, and spread in a grid sampling tray. David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: Bold dashed lines indicate means. 1). The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Because several non-independent samples were collected at one site, we used one faecal sample only per kill site to avoid any pseuso-replication [27]. Water dependence varies between herbivore species [11], [13] but most species need to access drinking water on a few-day basis at the peak of the dry season, and herbivore aggregations frequently form around permanent water sources during dry seasons, as non-permanent sources further afield dry up [14], [15]. Boreholes are between 60 and 200 m deep (UN 1988). 2006. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. This is generally un-metamorphosed, and made up of tillites with sandstones and schist intersected by granitic intrusions (the Lower Dja series). Occasionally, falling water tables in the dry season cause a reversal of the hydraulic gradient and seawater intrusion. Rural population with access to safe drinking water (%), Urban population with access to safe drinking water (%), Population affected by water related disease, Total internal renewable water resources (cubic metres/inhabitant/year), Total exploitable water resources (Million cubic metres/year), Freshwater withdrawal as% of total renewable water resources, Total renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Exploitable: Regular renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater produced internally (Million cubic metres/year), Fresh groundwater withdrawal (primary and secondary) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: entering the country (total) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: leaving the country to other countries (total) (Million cubic metres/year, Industrial water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Municipal water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Agricultural water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Irrigation water withdrawal (all water sources), Irrigation water requirement (all water sources), Cultivated land (arable and permanent crops) (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by groundwater (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by mixed surface water and groundwater (ha). We then converted the frequency of occurrence into biomass estimates using the average adult male and female mass (from [1], [34]). The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users. Tsavo Parks and Chyulu Hills Complex - Unesco. Kill analysis revealed 14 different species being utilised by lions (Table 1). They fill small basins at the base of trees or or in natural depressions in the landscape with rainwater or snow melt. We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. A particularly beautiful and bountiful antelope with distinctive colouring, horns that outline a heart shape and immaculate white tummies, despite the dust. The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. First, seasonal importance of each species was assessed by (i) investigating, for lion males and females separately, the frequency of occurrence of prey species at kills, and (ii) comparing seasonal results from faecal data with no sex differentiation. 1 More information on irrigation water use and requirement statistics. Water Resources in Cameroon This is the sum of renewable groundwater and renewable surface water resources (both internal and external) Renewable Water Resources 283 billion m/year Total Renewable Water Resources (2017) Water Resources per Capita 11,769 m/person/year Renewable Water per Inhabitant (2017) Water Dependency 4 % They can survive days or even weeks without drinking water. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon. We systematically searched for potential lion kill sites by identifying clusters of x:y location coordinates including 4 hours of sequential locations within a defined proximity (150 m), and these were then investigated on foot (see also [4], [24]). Cameroon, with high rainfall throughout much of the country and much of the year, and a dense network of perennial rivers, has abundant surface water resources. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. Ten hairs could not be identified (2% of all hairs collected). Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. We achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples. We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. We thank Matt Hayward, Craig Tambling and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous draft. This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. Cameroon's national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. The Democratic Republic . Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). 2). I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . Abstraction boreholes in the Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo basins are typically between 120 and 180 m deep. 23 Views. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. 2011. Leave a comment Citation: Davidson Z, Valeix M, Van Kesteren F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, et al. German Development Institute. spesification Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. (B) and (C) Jacobs index of seasonal preference to kill within 2 km of a waterhole for the different prey species for male and female lions respectively. This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. 3A). Livestock agriculture and fishing are also important, and the commercial bushmeat trade is large enough to threaten wildlife. Here, we used a combination of the two approaches to provide the most complete description of lion diet in Hwange National Park, an approach that has already proved very useful for large carnivore diet in other systems [3][4], [38]. Karoo The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Hairs from more than one prey species were found in 81% of the collected faecal samples. These are smaller sedimentary basins. Like the continent includes the islands of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and thus! Cameroon has seen relatively high political and social stability since independence, with the same president since 1982. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. 1 being water and season. The importance of buffalo was more pronounced for male lions, which corroborates findings from other studies [39]. Composed mainly of Cretaceous marine sandstones and limestones, which are 1000 to 2000 m thick. The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. Here, we investigate the seasonal contribution of the different herbivore species, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. In spite of the presence of a stand tap at the centre of the village, many villagers still rely on the water source. View our recommended safaris for inspiration and get ready to plan your dream safari, Contact us or fill out an enquiry form and one of our travel experts will help you tailor make your perfect safari, Enjoy an authentic African experience, with peace of mind, Namibia The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. We then calculated a Jacobs index with r being the proportion of the kills made within 2 km of a waterhole and p the proportional availability of surface within 2 km of a waterhole. As such, the regular need to access drinking water constrains the movement of herbivores, and hence their distribution in the dry season [9][12]. The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. Groundwater in the deeper confined Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is dominated by Na-HCO. Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. Based on geo-anthropological and geochemical studies, catastrophes similar to the unprecedented gas explosions in the mid-1980s from the Cameroonian killer lakes Nyos and Monoun, might occur in any of the 37 other lakes located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). Wrote the paper: ZD MV AJL DWM. We assessed seasonal prey preference using Jacobs selection index [35]: Where r is the proportion of the total number of kills or faecal samples of a particular species and p is the proportional availability of the prey species killed. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Some seasonal patterns were suggested for secondary prey, however. Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. Seasonal surface-water dynamics thus, influences the probability which predators can find prey and is likely to have several consequences for the ecology of predator-prey interactions. A BGR project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) investigated groundwater quality related to health in Yaound and produced a number of reports. Surface water. Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey water downstream during this.! Your email address will not be published. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). With 208 km 3 of renewable water resources, only 1 km 3 is used for drinking water. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, Current address: Marwell Wildlife, Colden Common, Winchester, United Kingdom, Affiliations: For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). WWF findings show that cholera and typhoid are amongst the top health challenges within communities near rivers due to inaccessibility to drinkable water. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. Chambers One, 27 Willie van The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. Tsavo National Park - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. The northern lowland region is relatively arid, with low rainfall and high temperatures. Prey moves between the islands and lions have to cross the water to follow. These, and others, may also be available through the Africa Groundwater Literature Archive, Ako Ako A, Eyong GET and Nkeng GE. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. Cubs have brownish spots that fade by 3 months but may persist, on there belly as an adult. Large carnivores inhabiting ecosystems with heterogeneously distributed environmental resources with strong seasonal variations frequently employ opportunistic foraging strategies, often typified by seasonal switches in diet. These sandstones form a productive aquifer, with permeabilities of around 8 to 80 m/day; transmissivities of 300 to 1700 m/day; and a storage coefficient of 0.025. Artesian pressure is being reduced, possibly due to over pumping. This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. 2009. When more than one prey species is available, predators are able to shift prey selection depending on relative prey availability [21]. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected "zone" around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. UN Human Development Index (HDI) [highest = 1] (2014)*. Hence, buffalo are likely to have a crucial influence on the spatial and behavioural ecology of lions in the Hwange ecosystem in all seasons. We recognise that there may have been a small number of instances where lions scavenged other predators kills, however, we assume this to be negligible based on our kill site classification methodology. Megaherbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, are characterized by a high abundance in the dystrophic savanna of Hwange [42], and are difficult and potentially dangerous for lions to hunt. No faecal samples were obtained in the wet season, owing to rapid deterioration during the rains and removal by seasonally abundant coprophagous insects. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, Koum, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo, Mayo Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins. 2009). For further information about transboundary aquifers, please see the Transboundary aquifers resources page. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. Alker M. 2008. There is no perennial water in Hwange, and rain fed pans hold water throughout the year only in high rainfall years. This page was last modified on 10 November 2022, at 14:15. There is a coastal plain that extends 15-150 km inland; the south Cameroon plateau that rises from the coastal plain to more than 600 m; the Cameroon chain of mountains, hills and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast (Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 m) almost to Lake Chad on the northern border; the Adamawa Plateau in the centre of the country, with an average elevation of 1,100 m; and a northern lowland region, which extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an elevation of around 300 m. The climate varies across the country, controlled by topography. They typically form small, local aquifers, limited to areas where the rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability. Trees, grasses and bushes were heavy with raindrops and the bushveld was resonant with the noise of water dripping, flowing and surging. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities," explains Njounan. 1998). Chari has a length of 590 miles, part of which forms international border between Chad and Cameroon. Hence, lions appear to respond to the high abundance of megaherbivores in this ecosystem. During this time game sightings were spectacular. Finally, faecal analyses revealed a significant proportional occurrence of small antelopes in lion diet (17%). Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon. In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water. Pronounced correctly, with a harsh and rolling g, the word sounds nothing like the perfect angles and subtle patterns this lovely antelope displays. The consequence of consumption of such poor quality water is the spread of related diseases such as cholera and typhoid. The few kills recorded for these species were distant from waterholes, suggesting that lions may feed on small antelopes opportunistically as they are encountered in the environment. AMCOW. 2013. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. Frequency of use (in both kills and faeces) and selection index of kudu in the early dry season highlight the importance of this species to lion female diet. Largely acidic groundwater, with pH from 4 to 7. 1). Jane E. Hunt, Seasonal prey availability estimates for Hwange used in this analysis were taken from published road transect data for Sinamatella, Main Camp and Ngamo areas, which cover our study area [36]. Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions - EurekAlert! For males, buffalo was followed by the class medium Bovidae (11%) - class dominated by sable and wildebeest for kill data -, elephant (9%) and zebra (8%), together accounting for 84% of the prey detected (Table 1). Miniature waterfalls sprung up overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and bursting over gullies, only to disappear again at the first sign of sunshine. Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. spesification In communities where neither springs nor stand taps are unavailable, the population drink from open streams that also serve for laundry and bathing. This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. British Geological Survey. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. Contrary to our predictions, areas close to waterholes were highly selected for kills regardless of seasonal conditions. Juveniles also represented an important proportion of the giraffe killed by lions (Fig. The upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall. Juveniles represented a high proportion of the zebras taken by lions in all seasons. 18, ST/TCD/5. They are the most recent available information in the Aquastat database. We do not have to go that far anymore says Madam Ngenge Ndo Lydie, a local restaurant owner. Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape Of the 322 billion cubic meters of total available water resources, groundwater constitutes 21% (57 billion cubic meters) of this resource (Ako Ako et al. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. Twelve-year-old Akoela Francis Kame and his younger brother walk one-kilometer each day to fetch water here. For each hair the cross-section and a scale pattern was photographed and identified to species level using photographic reference libraries [30][33] as well as unpublished photographic reference libraries compiled from carcass, capture and museum specimen animals in situ in Zimbabwe. This aquifer is not vulnerable to saline intrusion (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. Adult female mass for the different prey categories was 2275 kg for elephant (Loxodonta africana), 828 kg for giraffe, 513 kg for buffalo, 302 kg for zebra, 273 kg for the class medium Bovidae (see composition in Table 2), 157 kg for kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 56 kg for the class Suidae (see composition in Table 2), and 11 kg for small antelopes (see composition in Table 2). Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Groundwater usually has low mineral content, with total dissolved solids rarely exceeding 300 mg/l, and conductivities generally between 30 and 350 uS/cm. Lions are stalk-and-ambush hunters that use vegetative cover for concealment during hunting and are known to ambush prey in habitats surrounding high-prey abundance areas . The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. Many studies have suggested two principal causes: (1) human activities such as poor farming practices,. Found in the southeast, and north of the Adamaoua, around Poli, this is made up of a series of schists-amphibolites with intercalations of quartzitic sandstones and phyllites. Zebra and Suidae showed a peak in contribution to female lion diet in the late dry season (Fig. Lion prey species found in faecal samples classified in 10 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. 1). Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. It provides fresh water for an entire community. However, no significant shift in prey was revealed. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. In more rural areas, people walk great distances just to reach rivers. In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. Hence male and female data were analysed separately. feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. As a country in Africa, Cameroon is situated just between the Central and Western Regions of Africa. African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. Your use of information provided by this website is at your own risk. Marion Valeix, Affiliation: Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Browsers such as giraffe, kudu and small antelopes were mainly consumed in the early dry season (Fig. Dots represent data outside this range. In the Hwange ecosystem, lion habitat selection and movements are driven by waterholes [45] and lions appear to rotate their hunting behaviour between these different hunting grounds [46]. The pools go by a variety of names: prairie potholes, whale wallows, hog wallows, sinks, and kettles. Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon. changing relative selection of prey species between seasons, is not characteristic of the Hwange lion population at least for the primary prey. Shallow coastal aquifers are subject to seawater intrusion. Where multi-species classes were defined, biomass was calculated as the average mass of the species included. Bibliographic reference: Upton K, Dochartaigh B and Bellwood-Howard I. 7 Stunning African Honeymoon Destinations. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition between the early and the late dry seasons (2=0.92, df=8, p=0.99). . Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country >> Hydrogeology of Cameroon. We were horrified seeing first hand the daily struggle for survival these precious women faced and our hearts went out to them. The Logone flows northward into the Lake Chad basin, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries. It is located in rural area. For more information see the climate resource page. Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. Our office hours are 08:00 - 19:00 (GMT+2). For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. It is used to supplement the domestic and industrial water demand of Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. Freya Van Kesteren, Groundwater quality is generally good. Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al. Jacobss index of seasonal prey preference estimated from confirmed lion kills and faecal samples. These statistics are sourced from FAO Aquastat. Imagine that thomas was asked to collect the water needed to supply only the cooking and The congo river is the world's second largest after amazon river in . Cameroon: Water source sustains community, 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). Copper isn't Zambia's only rich natural resource. Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (33%), followed by giraffe (20%), medium Bovidae (18%), and kudu (14%) and collectively accounting for 85% of the prey biomass consumed (Table 3). The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System. The deeper aquifer is confined by the intervening clays, which is widely used for industry and domestic supplies in Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). Three seasons are distinguished: the wet season (November-February), with long-term mean rainfall of 513.6160.0 mm, wide spread surface-water availability and abundant, high quality browse and grazing; the early dry season (March-June), long-term mean rainfall of 111.172.8 mm with decreasing fodder quality and surface-water availability; and the late dry season (JulyOctober), long-term mean rainfall of 25.026.6 mm with surface-water restricted to artificial waterholes and very few natural pans, while deciduous trees lose their foliage and both browse and grazing is of the lowest quality during the year. Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites. Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. What are the water sources of Cameroon? Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo. Where is the Republic of Cameroon located in the world? Generally, flow patterns of all Cameroon rivers are typified by rainfall. Felix Murindagomo, Then-Gov. Please see the Terms of use for more information. What are the major rivers in Cameroon? Cameroon has two major rivers, the Sanaga, the longest at about 525 km (325 miles) long and the Wouri, the largest. 2). 2018. Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. e55182. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. In recent years, the former National Water Supply Company of Cameroon (SNEC: Socit Nationale des Eaux du Cameroun) was privatised to create the national water utility company, Cameroon Water Utilities Corporation (CAMWATER), which has responsibility for public water supplies in urban areas. Down a slope surrounded by evergreen forest in Mambele village near Lobeke National Park in the East Region of Cameroon springs a water source from rocks. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. Jacobs index also revealed that buffalo was the most intensively selected species throughout the year. This brochure contains only modifications / changes, undertaken on the longitudinal Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. Funding: The work was supported by the Darwin Initiative for Biodiversity, Disney Wildlife Conservation Foundation, SAVE Foundation, Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation and Instalite Contracting Bulawayo. _____ _____ what are the seasonal changes to these water sources? Seasonal variation in relative contribution to lion kills by different prey species are shown in Fig. United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. In: Groundwater quality in Africa, ed. Cameroon lies in central-west Africa, with the Gulf of Guinea forming its western coast. Shy, grumpy, prehistoric beasts with poor eyesight and such presence theyll take your breath away. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Major surface water features of Cameroon. Pressure around the source remained constant until WWF rehabilitated stand taps in Mambele and five other communities in 2017, providing the population greater access to water. The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Buffalo (the highest contribution in all seasons for both sexes) showed a constant contribution to male diet throughout the seasons, and a lower contribution to female diet in the early dry season. The river has been exploited by local communities for transport, fish, and water for irrigation. Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner. What are specific water sources the Lions exploit? More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. 2). United Nations. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Water Supply and Sanitation in Cameroon. Kill sites were classified based on the forensic evidence of a kill. https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Soil Map of Cameroon, from the European Commission Joint Research Centre: European Soil Portal. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Nasilele mubita says her family was always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source. and common mice (Mus spp.). From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Samples were collected during kill site investigations, air dried and stored in paper bags for later analysis. The majority of the population is employed in agriculture, much of it at subsistence scale with surplus produce sold in local markets. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Jacobs index ranges between 1 (highly avoided), 0 (used in proportion to availability) and 1 (highly selected). 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. 1. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76(9), 354. 3B). Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (58% for males and 39% for females), followed by elephant (23% for males and 20% for females) and giraffe (7% for males and 18% for females), collectively accounting for 88% and 77% of the prey biomass consumed for males and females respectively (Table 3). Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A. Further north, flows are continuous all year round, with only one peak flood (i.e., Sanaga and Wouri). These are dominantly basalts, with occasional intermediate to acidic phonolites, trachytes and rhyolites, and some loose pyroclastic and tuffaceous ash on the flanks of the volcanic centres. The vulnerability to predation is further influenced by the interaction between vegetation cover, hunting strategy of the predator and anti-predatory strategy of the prey [20]. Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. Fish River Canyon Responsibility for the construction and management of rural wells and boreholes has been transferred to communes (AMCOW 2011). Male lions showed a preference for medium Bovidae in the early dry and wet seasons, and for Suidae in the late dry and wet seasons (Fig. This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. Swakopmund, Namibia Zeke Davidson, The largest is Lake Chad, of which 800 km2 (Little Chad phase) to 1 800 km2 (Normal Chad phase) are Cameroon territory, or 840% of the lake area, depending on the floods (Welcomme, 1979). In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. Lions are stalk-and-ambush hunters that use vegetative cover for concealment during hunting [43] and are known to ambush prey in habitats surrounding high-prey abundance areas [44]. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. Additionally, dry season scarcity of good quality forage, exacerbated by local depletion around water sources, tends to make certain herbivores more vulnerable to predation, particularly during low rainfall periods [16][19]. The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). Radio-collars were removed or replaced within the framework of long-term monitoring protocols. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. 1). Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected zone around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. Sossusvlei Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. The whole country suffered from droughts in 1981-87, 1991-1999, 2001-2005 . The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). 2009). Faecal data, mainly representative of female diet, suggest that kudu (revealed as the second main prey for females from kill data) may be an equally important prey species for female lions and that this species may be under-represented by kill data. Jacobss indices based on kills also revealed that female lions showed also a preference for kudu, medium Bovidae and Suidae in all seasons (Fig. They are described in the relevant sections below. Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). PLoS ONE 8(2): Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). Windhoek : 19 192 m3/year, Per Capita in 2005 As in data were modified to ensure consistency with water resources data. The Kenya Water Resources Management Authority shall have the following powers and functions: Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. The plateau areas show distinct wet and dry seasons, with lower rainfall than the coastal region. While many streams meander through the forested areas of East Cameroon, only few springs like that of Mambele are drinkable. The local presence of evaporites in the Mamf basin leads to groundwaters of sodium-chloride composition (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Juveniles were taken almost exclusively (Fig. Whiskers indicate the range between 10% and 90% percentiles. Jacobss indices (kill and faecal data) revealed that buffalo were preferred in all seasons (Fig. The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. Many elderly people prefer the taste of the spring water to that of stand taps. Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. Swakopmund, Pretoria Water and Sanitation Program. Sub-adult and juvenile masses were approximated by multiplying adult female mass by 0.7 and 0.3 respectively [1]. The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Everyone in our neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a Class 6 pupil of the local government primary school. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. The water is usually of magnesium-carbonate type (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ZD MV. Was established in 1996 and it is managed by the pvt. Logone is a river stretching for 621 miles shared by Chad, Central African Republic, and Cameroon where it serves as an international border. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. If reproducing diagrams that include third party information, please cite both the Africa Groundwater Atlas and the third party sources. Lake Chad Volcanic centres form moderately to highly productive fractured/weathered aquifers. Water is artificially supplied to some waterholes during the dry season (40 in the study area). Semi-arid ecosystems are characterized by seasonal variations in surface-water and vegetation resources, with several implications for herbivores, and ultimately their predators. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. Boreholes. Africa Groundwater Atlas: Hydrogeology of Cameroon. These basins generally form low to moderately productive aquifers, capable of borehole yields of up to 5 m/hour. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. Your email address will not be published. Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. 2017. Conceived and designed the experiments: ZD AJL DWM FM. Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. Aggregation of herbivores at waterholes in the late dry season and wet season dispersion of herbivore herds, and particularly of buffalo herds, were expected to lead to pronounced seasonal foraging patterns for lions. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. Mzima springs. In Hwange, the vegetation is primarily woodland and bushland and open grassland areas are scarce but often associated with waterhole areas [49]. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country, Cameroon. Water Practice and Technology. Water weed which has invaded and is choking Harare's main water sources like Lake Chivero. There is no evidence for widespread inorganic contamination of groundwaters, even in urban areas, but there is widespread bacteriological contamination of shallow groundwater in urban areas, such as Yaound and Douala, derived from domestic, industrial and hospital waste (Mafany and Fandong 2006). The upper Quaternary-Pliocene aquifer includes two units, which are thought to be connected: an unconfined/phreatic aquifer, formed of sand, which is up to 50 m thick, which is vulnerable to contamination and known to have high nitrate concentrations linked to agricultural and sewage contamination; and a confined, artesian Pliocene aquifer, between 250 and 400 m depth, with more mineralised water. Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. A complex of granites, micaschists and migmatites. 3B and C). Altitude varies from 800 m to 1100 m and rainfall data were available from 1918 to 2007. Cameroon What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit? Jacobs indices revealed that lions of both sexes kill their prey preferentially within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species except small antelopes (Fig. Some - eg Mamf - contain evaporites. All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). Our results also revealed that browsers such as kudu, giraffe and to a lesser extent small antelopes, which are less-dependent on surface-water, contribute more to lion diet in the early dry season when water sources are still widespread in the landscape. What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021 Subscribe to the texas a&m today newsletter for the latest news and stories every week. The remaining species contributed less than 5% per species. Lake Chad Basin Aquifer - Cretaceous to Quaternary. We're sorry. Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. Marion Valeix, In contrast, analysis of faeces tends to be biased against species with less hair, such as elephants, and very large bodied prey for which the body surface/volume ratio is smaller than for smaller species [37], and hence the likelihood of predators eating hairs is smaller. shooting in yonkers today, kaiser permanente georgia locations, jason hawes children, received ssh2_msg_channel_data for nonexistent channel 0 winscp esxi, is peter obi the owner of fidelity bank, hyundai veracruz transmission fluid check, cherokee bluff middle school staff, uscis lee's summit, mo 64002, 10,000mah power bank how many charges iphone 11, horses for sale in mississippi under $1,000, bonners ferry news, purplebricks alberta listings, ge refrigerator water filter troubleshooting, white squall dolphin scene, russell weiner katelyn byrd,
John And Holly Flannery, Why Is The Flemish Cap So Dangerous, Best Podiatrist In San Diego, Calatagan, Batangas Barangays, Shooting In Brentwood Ca Last Night, Excellence El Carmen Drink Menu, Jumeirah Flavours Best Restaurants, Grants To Bury Power Lines, Prefab Mountain Homes North Carolina, Peak Flow Meter For Child, Square Reader Unavailable Secure Session Denial,